Tobacco Farming

This page was last edited on at

Key points

  • Tobacco farming is promoted as profitable and a good source of revenue for governments, but it often traps farmers and workers in poverty, debt, and exploitative labour conditions.
  • Child labour remains prevalent in tobacco farming.
  • Farmers and their communities face serious health risks, including nicotine poisoning, pesticide exposure, and respiratory diseases.
  • Tobacco cultivation damages the environment through pesticide use and deforestation.
  • Climate change is making tobacco growing even more financially risky for farmers.
  • Tobacco companies use CSR/ESG initiatives to improve their image, while obstructing genuine efforts to support farmers with sustainable alternatives.

Background

Article 17 of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) encourages parties to promote sustainable alternatives to tobacco farming.1

Decreasing tobacco consumption from 2000 to 2020 was reflected in a worldwide decline in tobacco leaf production during the same period.23 However, tobacco remains a widely grown cash crop for many farmers, especially in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs), where the vast majority of tobacco farming now takes place.45 90% of tobacco is now grown in LMICs including Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malawi, Kenya, and Zambia.3678

The tobacco industry portrays tobacco farming as economically advantageous for governments and farmers. Other claims include that it helps improve resilience, supports low-income populations, empowers women, and strengthens communities.91011 The industry also downplays the risks of tobacco growing for health and the environment.1213

In reality, tobacco farming often leads to economic hardships, labour exploitation, environmental degradation, and health problems for farmers and communities.14

The tobacco industry uses tobacco farming as a strategy to increase tobacco consumption in a country, as well as a tool to influence policy.15 At the same time, tobacco farmers’ interests may be misrepresented through front groups set up or funded by the tobacco industry to promote its own interests.16

Tobacco leaf drying

Image 1: Tobacco leaf drying (Source: Shutterstock)

The myth of economic prosperity

According to the tobacco industry, tobacco is a cash crop, which promises jobs, higher incomes for farmers and foreign direct investment for states.91011

However, tobacco growing is often less profitable for farmers than other crops, and tobacco-growing families are poorer than comparable non-tobacco-growing households.617 In Lebanon, research has shown that small scale production is so unprofitable that it would not be possible without government subsidy.18

Evidence shows that the labour costs of growing tobacco are high, as much as double the labour needed to produce other similar crops. For example, tobacco is amongst the most labour-intensive crops in Kenya, requiring over 1,000 hours of unpaid labour to produce one acre of tobacco.19 The number of hours needed for tobacco growing stops families spending time attaining educational qualifications or developing skills that might lead to more lucrative livelihoods.

In its reporting, the tobacco industry minimises the low rates of return on investment for tobacco growing and downplays the financial risks for the farmers.9 At the bottom of the tobacco supply chain, tobacco farmers are often the most exposed to fluctuations in the price of tobacco leaf.18

Contract farming

Most tobacco farmers now work under a contract system with leaf buying-companies or directly with transnational tobacco companies.1920

Under these systems, farmers receive inputs like plants, fertiliser and machinery at the start of the season from leaf-buying companies, without having to pay upfront. In return, they commit to selling their tobacco to the leaf merchant. Lower initial costs compared to other crops encourages smallholder farmers to grow tobacco, especially in lower income countries such as Malawi.21

However, leaf prices are dictated by the buying companies, which often set them very low or reduce them during the contract period. Leaf buyers often use tobacco grading (classification of leaf quality) to reduce the offer price, often in disagreement with farmers.192223 Leaf buying companies can also deduct unfairly high costs from the payment they offer farmers, to pay back the inputs they initially provided.19

Contract farming rarely produces the high returns promised by tobacco and leaf-buying companies. Instead, contract farmers remain stuck in ‘bonded labour’: debt cycles where they never earn enough to repay their debts.19202324 Contracted farmers often have to rely on the unpaid labour of family members and children in fields in order to meet contract requirements.20 A 2020 study of tobacco farming in Kenya shows that most tobacco farmers are stuck in unprofitable ‘contract farming’ systems and 10-15% are food insecure.19

Farmers often understand that this contract system for tobacco farming is risky but agree to this work because they lack the credit to pursue other economic opportunities. Contract tobacco growing guarantees them the income, however low, that they need in order to pay for basic needs like healthcare and education.6

The climate crisis and profitability

The climate crisis in tobacco-growing regions makes profits from tobacco growing more unreliable.

In Zimbabwe, shorter and more erratic rainy seasons have decreased the quality and quantity of tobacco crops, especially for smallholder farmers who cannot afford irrigation systems and rely on rainfall instead.25

In the tobacco-growing region of Temanggung, Indonesia, the phenomenon of late tobacco harvesting seasons has become increasingly common. In this region, farmers have been losing income, as companies purchase tobacco leaf from other regions where harvesting happens earlier in the year.26

Farmers in tobacco growing regions that are heavily impacted by the climate crisis have been developing adaptation and mitigation strategies to maintain the profitability of their tobacco crops, such as irrigation systems and later harvesting. However, research indicates that “even with these adaptations tobacco and maize are riskier crops to grow than traditional grains.”25

Risks of tobacco farming

Not only does tobacco farming often fail to deliver promised prosperity, tobacco growing also is associated with damage to the environment, to health and to children.

Risks to the environment

Tobacco farming has a significant impact on the environment in a number of ways, including deforestation,2728 soil degradation,2930 biodiversity loss,31 and through the use of pesticides.3233 Despite this, tobacco companies use ESG rankings and accreditations to clean up their image.34

Image of farmer with a bundle of tobacco leaf

Image 2: A farmer carrying a bundle of tobacco leaf (Source: Shutterstock)

Risks to health

Tobacco leaf production has many health risks, which impact farmers, labourers and tobacco growing communities.35

According to the World Health Organization, “each day, a tobacco worker who plants, cultivates and harvests tobacco may absorb as much nicotine as found in 50 cigarettes”.5 Nicotine poisoning, also known as green tobacco sickness (GTS), occurs as a result of exposure to wet tobacco leaves during tobacco cultivation, and children are more likely to develop GTS.936 Avoiding nicotine poisoning when working with tobacco plants is difficult, even when wearing protective equipment. BAT reported several cases of GTS in its Brazilian farming operations, despite workers having worn protective equipment.9

Another risk resulting from tobacco farming is exposure to agrochemicals, including pesticides. The risk is generally lower for tobacco farmers in high-income countries than in LMICs, where the regulation of chemicals tends to be weaker.29 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), plus eleven other persistent organic pollutants used in agrochemicals, are banned in high income countries, but not in some LMICs.2937 Pesticides are often sold to tobacco farmers in LMICs without proper packaging or instructions.2937 The health effects that derive from chronic exposure range from birth defects and tumours to blood disorders, neurological diseases and depression.2937 Even tobacco workers who do not directly mix or spray chemicals, like harvesters, can be exposed to significant levels of toxins and are susceptible to pesticide poisoning.22

In Bangladesh, where weedkiller is frequently used in tobacco fields, significant levels of chemicals were also detected in local water sources, killing fish and organisms essential for soil health.38

There is also an increased prevalence of respiratory issues, caused by tobacco dust, smoke from curing, and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, mould, endotoxins) among tobacco farmers and workers.39

Risks to children

Child labour is a prevalent and longstanding issue in the tobacco farming sector.40

Children involved in the growing stages of tobacco farming take part in labour-intensive activities,41 which pose risks to their health,4243 and limit their access to education.4445

Children working in tobacco farms are also more vulnerable to the health risks than adults, including the impacts of absorbing nicotine.46 Many of the children working in tobacco fields in Kenya report handling fertilisers and chemicals, endangering their health.1946

Tobacco farming and the WHO FCTC

The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) is an international treaty that aims to reduce the demand and supply of tobacco.

It recognises that as countries and governments adopt measures to reduce the demand of tobacco products, they must also address the consequences of this demand reduction on tobacco farmers who rely on these crops for their livelihoods.47

Article 17

Article 17 of the FCTC recognises the need to:

“promote economically viable alternatives to tobacco production as a way to prevent possible adverse social and economic impacts on populations whose livelihoods depend on tobacco production.”1

Alternative crops or ventures can provide tobacco farmers more sustainable livelihoods.48 However, a lack of government support and resistance from the tobacco industry has meant mixed results with regard to crop diversification.4950

The tobacco industry has been involved in programmes supporting farming diversification in tobacco growing regions, despite the WHO FCTC specifically recommending that “policies promoting economically sustainable alternative livelihoods should be protected from commercial and other vested interests of the tobacco industry”.114 A study in Malawi by the Sustainable Development Initiative in collaboration with STOP found tobacco industry efforts at diversification to be “largely superficial and counterproductive”.51 It claimed their initiatives were ineffective, contradictory, and were a tool aimed at improving the industry’s image, rather than a genuine commitment to diversification.

Article 18

Under Article 18, Parties to the FCTC must also:

“have due regard to the protection of the environment and the health of persons in relation to the environment in respect of tobacco cultivation and manufacture within their respective territories.”47

CSR and ESG

In response to increasing scrutiny over environmental degradation and the use of child labour in the tobacco supply chain, transnational tobacco companies have invested in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives. They promote these in the media and through their Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) reports.34

In tobacco growing countries, CSR initiatives are a useful tool for the tobacco industry to project a positive image and further their interests.52 However, such initiatives have been criticised for being ineffective,53 as well as for inaccurate and unreliable reporting.54

PMI’s ‘Agricultural Labour Practices’ (ALP) Programme

On 10 December 2020, Philip Morris International (PMI) published an article seeking to celebrate the International Day of Human Rights by promoting its achievements around its Agricultural Labour Practices (ALP) program. This programme was created by PMI in 2011, seemingly aiming to end child labour and protect workers’ rights and livelihoods.55

According PMI’s ALP 2020 report, the key principles of the programme include “no child labor”, “no forced labor and human trafficking”, “safe work environment”, “freedom of association”, and “terms of employment”.56 However, the timeline below (Image 3) from the same report shows how PMI continued to use child labour in its supply chain, despite the programme having run for nine years. The company gave itself a further five years to end the practice.5657

Image of timeline of PMI Agricultural Labor Practices Program

Image 3: Timeline of the ‘Agricultural Labor Practices Program’ (Source: Philip Morris International, ALP program 2020 report)56

  • For more information on PMI’s ALP programme, and how tobacco companies fail to properly measure or manage the effectiveness of this type of initiative, see CSR: Child Labour

Tobacco Tactics Resources

Relevant Links

TCRG Research

For a comprehensive list of all TCRG publications, including TCRG research that evaluates the impact of public health policy, go to the Bath TCRG’s list of publications.

Print Friendly, PDF & Email

References

  1. ↑abcWorld Health Organization, Policy options and recommendations Articles 17 and 18, 2013, accessed May 2023
  2. ↑World Health Organization, Global report on trends in prevalence of tobacco use 2000-2025, fourth edition, 16 November 2021, accessed April 2023
  3. ↑abWorld Health Organization, Tobacco Production & Trade Global Infographic, 12 February 2021, accessed April 2023
  4. ↑A. Appau, J. Drope, F. Witoslar, J.J. Chavez & R. Lencucha, Why Do Farmers Grow Tobacco? A Qualitative Exploration of Farmers Perspectives in Indonesia and Philippines, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 2019;16(13):2330, doi:10.3390/ijerph16132330
  5. ↑abM.C. Kulik, S.A. Bialous, S. Munthali, W. Max, Tobacco growing and the sustainable development goals, Malawi, Bulletin of the WHO, May 2017, doi: 10.2471
  6. ↑abcTobacco Atlas, Challenge: Growing, undated, accessed April 2020
  7. ↑A. Appau et al, Explaining Why Farmers Grow Tobacco: Evidence From Malawi, Kenya, and Zambia, Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 22(12) 2020:2238-2245, doi:10.1093/ntr/ntz173
  8. ↑A. Paul et al., Self-reported health problems of tobacco farmers in south-eastern Bangladesh, Journal of Public Health: From Theory to Practice, 2021, 29:595–604, doi:10.1007/s10389-019-01159-0
  9. ↑abcdeIMC Worldwide/British American Tobacco, A study on the impacts of tobacco growing and the role it plays in rural livelihoods, British American Tobacco website, 2019, archived February 2020, accessed April 2020
  10. ↑abPhilip Morris International, Socioeconomic wellbeing of tobacco-farming communities, 18 May 2021, accessed May 2023
  11. ↑abJapan Tobacco International, Growing Tobacco and Sustaining Farming Communities, undated, accessed May 2023
  12. ↑British American Tobacco, Combined Performance and Sustainability Summary 2024, 2025. Available from bat.com
  13. ↑Philip Morris International, Integrated Report 2024, 2025. Available from pmi.com
  14. ↑abR. Lencucha, J. Drope, P. Magati et al, Tobacco farming: overcoming an understated impediment to comprehensive tobacco control, Tobacco Control, 2022;31:308-312, doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2021-056564
  15. ↑N. Nguenha, S. Bialous, J. Matavel, R. Lencucha, Tobacco industry presence and practices in Mozambique: a ‘chaotic’ but worthy market, Tobacco Control, 2024, 33(1):86-92, doi:10.1136/tc-2022-057390
  16. ↑R. Lencucha, N. Vichit-Vadakan, R. Patanavanich, R. Ralston, Addressing tobacco industry influence in tobacco-growing countries, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2023, 102(1):58–64, doi: 10.2471/BLT.23.290219
  17. ↑M.A. Vargas & R.R. Campos, Crop Substitution and Diversification Strategies: Empirical Evidence from Selected Brazilian Municipalities, The World Bank Health Nutrition and Population: Economics of Tobacco Control Paper No. 28, March 2005, archived August 2017, accessed April 2020
  18. ↑abK. Hamade, “Tobacco Leaf Farming in Lebanon: Why Marginalized Farmers Need a Better Option” in Tobacco Control and Tobacco Farming: Separating Myth from Reality, edited by W. Leppan, N. Lecours and D. Buckles, London: Anthem Press, 2014, accessed April 2020
  19. ↑abcdefgTobacconomics, The Economics Of Tobacco Farming In Kenya: A Longitidunal Survey, 2020, accessed May 2023
  20. ↑abcM. Otañez, Social disruption caused by tobacco growing, 2 June 2008, accessed May 2023. Available from UCSF Centre for Tobacco Control Research and Education
  21. ↑A. Goger, P. Bamber, G. Gereffi, The Tobacco Global Value Chain in Low-Income Countries, Duke University Center on Globalization, Governance & Competitiveness, 2014. Available from globalvaluechains.org
  22. ↑abWorld Health Organization, Tobacco and its environmental impact: an overview, WHO website, 2017, accessed March 2020
  23. ↑abD Muleya, O Garare, N Mangirazi, Contract Tobacco Farmers in Zimbabwe Say They Are ‘Drowning in Debt’, OCCRP, 8 September 2021, accessed May 2023
  24. ↑R. Chingosho, C. Dare, C. van Walbeek, Tobacco farming and current debt status among smallholder farmers in Manicaland province in Zimbabwe, Tobacco Control 2021;30:610-615, doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2020-055825
  25. ↑abA. Newsham, T. Shonhe, T. Bvute, Commercial Tobacco Production And Climate Change Adaptation In Mazowe, Zimbabwe, APRA Working Paper, September 2021, accessed May 2023
  26. ↑E. Nurjani, R. Harini, A.B. Sekaranom, A.S. Mutaqqin, Tobacco farmers Perspective towards increasing climate change risk on agriculture sector: a case study of Temanggung- Indonesia, 2020, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 451 012101,doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012101
  27. ↑The New Humanitarian, Tobacco-curing eats up Zimbabwe’s forests, 31 July 2014, accessed March 2022
  28. ↑S. Ngwira, T. Watanabe, An Analysis of the Causes of Deforestation in Malawi: A Case of Mwazisi, Land, 2019;8(3),48; doi:10.3390/land8030048
  29. ↑abcdeN. Lecours, G.E.G Almeida, J.M. Abdallah, T. Novotny, Environmental health impacts of tobacco farming: a review of the literature, Tobacco Control, 21.2, 2012, pp 191-196, doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050318
  30. ↑E. Thomaz, V. Antoneli, Long-term soil quality decline due to the conventional tobacco tillage in Southern Brazil, Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 2021; doi:10.1080/03650340.2020.1852550
  31. ↑E.K.K. Jew, A.J. Dougill, S.M. Sallu, Tobacco cultivation as a driver of land use change and degradation in the miombo woodlands of south-west Tanzania, Land Degradation & Development, 2017;28(8):2636-2645; doi:10.1002/ldr.2827
  32. ↑A.K.M. Hussain, A.S.S. Rouf, S.N. Shimul et al, The Economic Cost of Tobacco Farming in Bangladesh International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17.24 (2020): 9447, doi:10.3390/ijerph17249447
  33. ↑D.A. Khan, S. Shabbir, M. Majid et al, Risk assessment of pesticide exposure on health of Pakistani tobacco farmers, Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, (2010) 20:196-204: doi:10.1038/jes.2009.13
  34. ↑abSTOP, Talking Trash: Behind the Tobacco Industry’s “Green” Public Relations, May 2022, accessed May 2023
  35. ↑N.M. Schmitt, J. Schmitt, D.J. Kouimintzis, W. Kirch, Health risks in tobacco farm workers-a review of the literature, Journal of Public Health, 2007;15:255-264; doi:10.1007/s10389-007-0122-4
  36. ↑E. Alderete et al, Youth working in tobacco farming: effects on smoking behavior and association with health status, BMC Public Health, 2020, 20(84):1-9, doi:10.1186/s12889-020-8169-z
  37. ↑abcE.G.O. Santos, P.R. Queiroz, A.D.D.S Nunes et al, Factors Associated with Suicidal Behavior in Farmers: A Systematic Review, Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2021 Jun 17;18(12):6522, doi: 10.3390/ijerph18126522
  38. ↑F. Akhter, F. Mazhar, M.A. Sobhan et al, From tobacco to food production: Assessing constraints and transition strategies in Bangladesh, Final Technical Report Submitted to the Research for International Tobacco Control (RITC) Program of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Centre, 2008
  39. ↑D. Ngajilo, S. Adams, M.F. Jeebhay, Occupational allergy and asthma in tobacco farmers: a review of literature, Current Allergy & Clinical Immunology, 2018 31(2):88-95
  40. ↑International Labour Organization, ILO cooperation with the tobacco industry in the pursuit of the Organisation’s social mandate, ILO governing body session report, 28 February 2017, accessed July 2020
  41. ↑T.W. Hu, A.H. Lee, Commentary: tobacco control and tobacco farming in African countries, Journal of Public Health, 2015;36(1):41-51, doi:10.1057/jphp.2014.47
  42. ↑A.K. Ramos, Child Labour in Global Tobacco Production: A Human Rights Approach to an Enduring Dilemma, Health and Human Rights, 2018;20(2):235-248
  43. ↑Human Rights Watch, “Hellish Work”: Exploitation of Migrant Tobacco Workers in Kazakhstan, HRW website, 14 July 2010, accessed July 2020
  44. ↑S.O. Appiah, Child Labour or Child Work? Children and Tobacco Production in Gbefi, Volta Region, Ghana Social Science Journal, 2018;15(1):147-176
  45. ↑H.A. Patrinos, G. Psacharopoulos, Educational Performance and Child Labour in Paraguay, International Journal of Educational Development, 2005;15(1):47-60, doi:10.1016/0738-0593(94)E0001-5
  46. ↑abAction on Smoking and Health, Tobacco and the Environment, ASH fact sheet, 22 September 2021, accessed November 2021
  47. ↑abWorld Health Organization, WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2003
  48. ↑World Health Organization, World No Tobacco Day 2023: grow food, not tobacco, 25 May 2023. Available from WHO.int
  49. ↑A. Ahsan, N.H. Wiyono, N. Amalia et al, Early assessment of tobacco excise sharing fund as policy for farmers’ viable alternatives in Indonesia: case study of four municipalities in Indonesia, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 2024, 11(89):1-8, doi:10.1057/s41599-023-02585-y
  50. ↑R. Lencucha, T. Moyo, R. Labonte et al, Shifting from tobacco growing to alternatives in Malawi? A qualitative analysis of policy and perspectives, Health Policy Plan, 2020, 35(7):810–818, doi:10.1093/heapol/czaa057
  51. ↑Sustainable Development Initiative and STOP, Sowing the Status Quo: How Crop Diversification Is Failing Tobacco Farmers in Malawi, 25 February 2025. Available from exposetobacco.org
  52. ↑N. Nguenha, S. Bialous, J. Matavel et al, Tobacco industry presence and practices in Mozambique: a ‘chaotic’ but worthy market, Tobacco Control, 2024, 33(1):86-92, doi:10.1136/tc-2022-057390
  53. ↑J.K. Kibwage, C.O. Othoo, C. Ndungu, Environmental audit and policy compliance of tobacco farming practices in Migori County, Western Kenya, Journal of UOEH, 2019, 41(3):259–269, doi:10.7888/juoeh.41.259
  54. ↑Y.H. Hendlin, S.A. Bialous, The environmental externalities of tobacco manufacturing: A review of tobacco industry reporting, Ambio, 2020, 49:17-34, doi:10.1007/s13280-019-01148-3
  55. ↑Philip Morris International, Enabling change in Nayarit, Mexico, December 2020, accessed December 2020
  56. ↑abcPhilip Morris International, ALP program 2020 report, December 2020, accessed December 2020
  57. ↑Philip Morris International, Celebrating 10 years of the ALP program, December 2021, accessed September 2025

Categories